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                     TOBACCO CONTROL E-NEWS

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Thursday, October 26, 1995                Edited by Jack W Cannon
                                                 jcannon@gate.net

                   [ Study From RJ Reynolds ]

Can Smoking Speed Cognitive Processing?

A more detailed report of this investigation has been submitted
for publication under the title "Faster P300 latency after
smoking in visual but not auditory oddball tasks"

Authors:

 Michael E. Houlihan, Bowman Gray School of Medicine
 Walter S. Pritchard, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co.
 John H. Robinson, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co.

Presentation at: The annual meeting for the Canadian Society for
Brain, Behavior and Cognitive Science, June 23, 24 1995 in
Halifax, NS, Canada.

Introduction

Smokers' reports of increased mental alertness due to smoking are
supported by the findings of improved performance on a host of
cognitive tasks following smoking (Koelega 1993; Wesnes 1987).
This enhancement is generally attributed to the pharmacological
effects of nicotine. The types of tasks in which smoking/nicotine
improves performance include rapid visual information processing,
memory tasks, motor tasks and choice reaction-time (RT) tasks.
The varied nature of these tasks indicates that smoking/nicotine
has positive effects on performance through its actions on
several neural systems.

While there is little doubt that smoking/nicotine enhances
cognitive performance, behavioral tasks by themselves provide
only limited information about the specific processing stages
being affected. For instance, most tasks make no distinction
among sources of facilitation such as faster stimulus
identification/classification and faster response
selection/execution. Tasks used to assess the effects of
smoking/nicotine generally require a simple decision and motor
response to visually presented stimuli. Thus shorter decision
time or faster motor responding could potentially explain the
smoking/nicotine-related improvements in performance.

Event-related potentials (ERPs) used in conjunction with
cognitive tasks provide a method of differentiating these factors
since they index the timing of various stages of processing
stimuli. For example, the latency of the P300 component of the
ERP provides a measure of the time taken for stimulus evaluation
and classification that is relatively independent of response
selection and execution processes (Kutas et al. 1977; McCarthy
and Donchin 1981).

There have been only a few studies examining the effect of
smoking/nicotine on the latency of the P300 component. In two of
these studies, smoking/nicotine speeded P300 latency. In one
study, this effect was seen only in the most difficult
combination of conditions (Le Houezec et al.  1994). In the
other, it was evident only for the 10 minutes immediately
following smoking (Edwards et al. 1985). While other studies of
the effects of smoking/nicotine have recorded ERPs, they either
had methodological insufficiencies that precluded an adequate
measure of P300 latency or simply did not report latency findings
(Hasenfratz et al 1989; Michel et al 1987; Norton et al. 1991).
Although, P300 latency decreased after smoking/nicotine
administration in those studies that were adequately designed,
the specific conditions under which smoking/nicotine
administration will result in faster stimulus-evaluation
processes have not been well established.

Overall, the studies conducted to date have not unambiguously
identified the specific stages of cognitive processing that are
facilitated by smoking/nicotine. The two following studies were
designed to help elucidate the mechanisms by which
smoking/nicotine exerts its effects on cognitive processing.

EXPERIMENT ONE

Subjects

32 paid volunteers (16 males, 16 females) Self reported free from
medical, neurological, and psychiatric disorders

Regular smokers (20 and 40 cigarettes/day) Abstained from smoking
since 11 P.M. the previous evening. Tidal-breath Carbon Monoxide
(CO) less than 12 parts per million.

EEG recording

An electrode cap having 20 Sn electrodes positioned at the 19
standard loci of the 10-20 system along with an electrode at Oz
and a forehead ground was used. A nasal reference was employed.
Impedances were less than 3 kOhms.  EEG was recorded using a
Bio-logic Brain Atlas III Plus workstation in an electrically
shielded sound-attenuated chamber. The EEG was digitized at a
rate of 128 Hz with on-line high- and low-pass filters of 1 and
30 Hz (-12 dB/octave rolloff). The EEG was averaged on-line with
an artifact-rejection criterion of >50 V in any channel.

Procedure

Each subject participated in three experimental blocks, with a
five-minute rest between blocks. In each block, subjects
performed an 'easy' and a 'hard' version of an auditory
tone-counting task. For both tasks, binaural, rarefied tone
bursts (rise and fall time of 10 ms; 40 ms plateau) were
presented through stereo headphones at a rate of 0.8/s. Randomly,
80% of the tones were 1000 Hz in frequency and 20% were 2000 Hz
in frequency. In the 'easy' task, subjects counted the 2000 Hz
tones forward by one's starting from zero (a standard 'auditory
oddball'). In the 'hard' task, subjects were assigned a number
that randomly varied between 525 and 575, and were instructed to
count backwards by three's every time they heard the 2000 Hz
tone. For each task, 50 artifact-free 2000-Hz trials were
required.  In each block, half the subjects always performed
'easy' followed by 'hard,' and the other half always performed
'hard' followed by 'easy.' Each of these two task-order groups
were half male and half female.

Subjects in each task-order group were further divided into two
different smoking-schedule groups, resulting in four final
subject groups of eight subjects (each half male and half
female). In one smoking-schedule group, subjects smoked a
cigarette between blocks one and two, and rested between blocks
two and three. In the other smoking-schedule group, subjects
rested between blocks one and two, and smoked a cigarette between
blocks two and three. This design allowed order effects to be
distinguished from smoking effects. The cigarettes were the
subjects' usual brand (1.1-mg FTC nicotine yield). Tidal-breath
CO was measured prior to each block.

Results

P300 was defined as the largest positive deflection between 250
and 600 ms in the infrequent (2000 Hz) tone averages at Pz, with
the following exception: if two prominent peaks were evident
(within 1 V of each other in amplitude), then P300 latency was
taken as the average of the two. The P300 latency data were then
submitted to a 2-between, 2-within analysis of variance (ANOVA;
for all ANOVAs performed, Greenhouse-Geisser corrected p-values
were used where appropriate). The between-subjects variables were
smoking schedule (smoke between the first two blocks or between
blocks two and three) and pre- to post-smoking rise in
tidal-breath CO (subjects were segregated on a post-hoc basis
into three groups: 'light' inhalers [CO of 5 ppm or less, 9
subjects], 'medium' inhalers [CO of 6-11 ppm, 12 subjects], and
'deep' inhalers [CO of 12 ppm or more, 9 subjects]). The
within-subjects variables were block (one, two, and three) and
task ('easy' and 'hard').

The key to a smoking effect was the smoking schedule x block
interaction.  Either this interaction or a higher-order
interaction involving it would have to be significant if smoking
affected P300 latency in some manner.  None of these 'smoking
effect' interactions were significant.

P300 Amplitude

P300 amplitude was analyzed by submitting the entire data set to
a covariance-matrix principal-components analysis (varimax
rotation). The largest factor accounted for 29.1 percent of the
variance, and its vector of loadings peaked at 390 ms. This
factor was identified as representing P300 activity, and factor
scores from it were submitted to a 2-between (smoking schedule
and depth of inhalation), 3-within analysis of variance (block,
task, and stimulus probability). The typical effect of stimulus
probability on P300 amplitude was obtained, with
frequent-stimulus factor scores being larger than
infrequent-stimulus factor scores [F(1,26) = 142.8, p < 0.0001].
However, no effects involving the smoking schedule x block
interaction were obtained, and it was concluded that within the
context of an auditory, counting oddball task smoking did not
affect P300 amplitude.

Discussion

Experiment One failed to replicate the findings of Edwards et al.
(1985) as well as the later Le Houezec et al. (1994) study in
that smoking did not affect P300 latency. However, there were two
important differences between Experiment One and the previous
studies. First, visual stimuli were used in both the Edwards et
al. and Le Houezec et al. studies, while auditory stimuli were
used in Experiment One. Second, the previous studies used an RT
task, while Experiment One employed two mental-counting tasks. It
was thus unclear if [1] P300 latency is only affected by smoking
in the visual modality, or if [2] P300 latency is only affected
by smoking within the context of an RT task. Another possible
difference was that Edwards et al. obtained significant effects
only for the 1.5-mg nicotine-yield cigarette, not the 0.9-mg
cigarette (a 1.1-mg cigarette was employed in our Experiment
One). The goal of Experiment Two was to attempt to clarify these
issues.

EXPERIMENT TWO

Method

Subjects

29 paid male volunteers

Self reported free from medical, neurological, and psychiatric
disorders

Regular smokers (20 and 40 cigarettes/day) Abstained from smoking
since 11 P.M. the previous evening. Tidal-breath CO less than 12
parts per million.

ERP Recording

EEG and EOG were recorded using Neuroscan Systems Synamps in an
electrically shielded and sound-attenuated chamber. EEG was
recorded using Sn electrodes from an electrode cap at 30 scalp
sites (the 19 standard 10-20 sites plus Fpz, FC3, Fcz, FC4, CP3,
Cpz, CP4, Oz, TP7, TP8) referenced to the tip of the nose.
Vertical and horizontal EOG were recorded using standard
procedures. A Sn electrode placed between Fpz and Fz served as
the ground. Electrode impedances were kept below 5 kOhms.
Signals were digitized at a rate of 500 Hz and digitally filtered
with high-pass and low-pass filter settings of .3 to 30 Hz
(-12dB/octave rolloff). EOG artifact was identified and
subtracted from continuous EEG using a linear-regression
algorithm provided by Neuroscan systems. Signal averaging was
conducted off-line after EOG correction. Trials with EEG > 50V
were not included in averages.

Heart rate (HR) was from an electrode placed on the left shoulder
and referenced to the nasal electrode. HR was quantified as the
beats per minute in the final 30 seconds of each task.

Behavioral Tasks

Standard oddball tasks were completed using either visual or
auditory stimuli. In the oddball tasks, the left button of a
mouse was pressed upon presentation of a relatively infrequent
target stimulus (p = .25) temporally embedded in a train of
standard stimuli (p = .75). No response was required to the
standard stimuli. A total of 300 stimuli with a random ISI
between 1000 and 1400 ms (M = 1200 ms) was used. In the visual
task, the letter "O" was the standard and the target was the
letter "X." These were displayed for 200 ms in the center of a
computer monitor. Auditory stimuli were 90 dB, 100-ms duration
tones with a 10-ms rise/fall time (standard 1000 Hz; target 2000
Hz) and were delivered via headphones.

Procedure

Each subject participated in four experimental blocks, with a
rest between blocks. In each block, subjects performed the visual
and the auditory task.  One block of the visual and auditory
tasks was completed [1] before smoking, [2] after smoking one
0.08-mg nicotine-yield cigarette (FTC method) , [3] after smoking
an initial 1.1-mg cigarette and [4] again after smoking a second
1.1-mg cigarette. Tidal-breath CO samples were taken after
smoking each cigarette.

Results

The P300 component was identified as the largest positive
deflection within a designated latency window (auditory 300-450
ms; visual 350-500 ms). All amplitude values were scored in
reference to the 100 ms baseline prior to stimulus onset. Data
were examined using ANOVAs with a between-subjects factor of task
order (visual first or auditory first) and a repeated factor of
smoking condition (pre-smoking, after smoking 0.08-mg cigarette,
after smoking first 1.1-mg cigarette, after smoking second 1.1-mg
cigarette).  Traditional P300 latency and amplitude measures also
involve a repeated factor of electrode site (Fz, Cz, and Pz).
Effects with a Greenhouse-Geisser corrected p-value less than
0.05 are reported.

Table 1

Means and standard deviations for tidal breath CO by task order
and heart rate for each smoking condition and modality

Heart Rate

Consistent with the higher yield of nicotine from the 1.1mg
cigarette, HR increased after smoking the first 1.1-mg cigarette
and remained at this level after smoking the second 1.1-mg
cigarette in both the auditory [F(3,81) = 38.9, p < 0.001; =
0.625] and visual tasks [F(3,81) = 28.1, p < 0.001; = 0.513]. HR
did not increase from pre-smoking levels after smoking the
0.08-mg cigarette (Table 1).

Reaction Time

In the visual task, RT was faster after smoking the second 1.1-mg
cigarette compared to RT following smoking the 0.08-mg cigarette
[F(3,81) = 30, p < 0.05] (Table 2). In the auditory task, RT was
faster [F(3,81)= 5.4, p < 0.05; = 0.536] following smoking of
both the first and second 1.1-mg cigarettes compared to
performance following smoking the 0.08-mg cigarette or baseline.
This was especially evident when the auditory task was done after
the visual task [F(3,81)=3.5, p < 0.05; = 0.536].

P300 Peak Latency

P300 latency in the visual task decreased after smoking both the
first higher nicotine cigarette [M=385 ms] and the second higher
nicotine cigarette [M=388 ms] compared with pre-smoking [M=400
ms] or after smoking the lower nicotine cigarette [M=400 ms]
[F(3,81)=6.6, p < 0.01; = 0.673] (see Figures 1 and 2). Latency
at Pz was shorter than at Fz or Cz [F(2,54)=4.3 p < 0.05; =
0.798]. In contrast, there were no significant effects on P300
latency in the auditory task (Table 2).

Table 2

Means and standard deviations for P300 amplitude and latency at
Pz, RT and RTsd for each smoking condition and modality.

P300 Peak Amplitude

As anticipated, P300 amplitude was greater at Cz and Pz than Fz
in the visual [F(2,54)=69.6 p < 0.001; = 0.810] and auditory task
[F(2,54)= 40.2, p < 0.001; = 0.803]. There were no differences
among smoking conditions for P300 peak amplitude.

Discussion

The effects of smoking on HR were due to nicotine, as increased
HR was observed after smoking the 1.1-mg nicotine-yield
cigarettes but not after the 0.08-mg nicotine-yield control
cigarette. This 0.08-mg cigarette provided subjects with
behavioral and sensory cues associated with smoking while
yielding very little nicotine.

The faster RT after smoking the 1.1-mg cigarette in this
experiment is a well replicated effect (eg. Bates et al. 1994;
Pritchard et al. 1992).  While this effect is robust, the
behavioral literature indicates that the effect of smoking on RT
appears to have an important motor component (Kerr et al. 1991;
Sherwood 1994). Again, however, behavioral data alone cannot
definitively address whether faster RTs produced by smoking are
mediated by processes that lead to faster decision times or by
processes that enhance response related processes or both.

Smoking the 1.1-mg cigarette shortened P300 latency in the visual
but not the auditory task. The faster P300 in the visual task is
consistent with previous reports of faster P300 latency in
different tasks that used visual stimuli (Edwards et al. 1985; Le
Houezec et al. 1994). Our smoking effect on P300 latency to the
visual and not the auditory modality is consistent with these
previous findings. The absence of smoking effects on P300 latency
in both an auditory RT task and an auditory counting task that
varied in difficulty, indicates a modality specific effect that
may be the result of the relatively greater concentration of
nicotinic receptors in the visual than the auditory system (Sloan
et al. 1987).

While smoking decreased P300 latency only in the visual task, RT
was faster after smoking the higher-yield cigarette in both the
auditory and visual modality. This combination of findings
supports Sherwood's claim that nicotine's facilitation of RT
indeed appears to have a significant motor component (Sherwood
1994). Our results indicate that this motor facilitation is
global across modality. However, the faster P300 latency in the
visual task suggests that in addition to response facilitation,
stimulus evaluation is improved by smoking/nicotine in tasks
presented in the visual modality.

For more information see:

Michael Houlihan's CV

The Effects of Smoking on Stimulus Evaluation and Response
Selection

Effects of Cigarette Smoking on EEG Spectral-Band Power,
Dimensional Complexity, and Nonlinearity During

Reaction-Time Task Performance

Created by Michael E. Houlihan. Please direct any comments to
Michael E.  Houlihan at houlihan@isnet.is.wfu.edu

References

Bates T, Pellet O, Stough C, Mangan G (1994) Effects of smoking
on simple and choice reaction time. Psychopharmacology
114:365-368

Edwards JA, Wesnes K, Warburton DM, Gale A (1985) Evidence of
more rapid stimulus evaluation following cigarette smoking.
Addict Behav 10:113-126

Hasenfratz M, Michel C, Nil R, Battig K (1989) Can smoking
increase attention in rapid information processing during noise?
Electrocortical, physiological and behavioral effects.
Psychopharmacology 98:75-80

Houlihan ME (1994) P300 and Cognitive Ability: Processing
Demands, Equivocation, and Speed of Processing During Simple
Cognitive Tasks.  Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University
of Ottawa

Jones GMM, Sahakian BJ, Levy R, Warburton, DM Gray JA (1992)
Effects of subcutaneous nicotine on attention, information
processing and short-term memory in Alzheimer's disease.
Psychopharmacology 108:485-494

Kerr JS, Sherwood N, Hindmarch I (1991) Separate and combined
effects of the social drugs of psychomotor performance. In: F
Adlkofer, K Thurau (eds), Effects of Nicotine on Biological
Systems. Birkhauser Verlag, Berlin, pp 521-526

Koelega HS (1993) Stimulant drugs and vigilance performance: A
review.  Psychopharmacology 111:1-16

Kutas M, McCarthy G, Donchin E (1977) Augmenting mental
chronometry: The P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time.
Science 197:792-795

Le Houezec J, Halliday R, Benowitz N, Callaway E, Naylor H,
Herzig K (1994) A low dose of subcutaneous nicotine improves
information processing in non-smokers. Psychopharmacology
114:628-634

McCarthy G, Donchin E (1981) A metric for thought: A comparison
of P300 latency and reaction time. Science 211:77-79

Michel C, Nil R, Buzzi R, Woodson PP, Battig K (1987) Rapid
information processing and concomitant event-related brain
potentials in smokers differing in CO absorption.
Neuropsychobiology 17:161-168

Norton R, Howard R, Brown K (1991) Nicotine dose-dependent
effects of smoking on P300 and mood. Med Sci Res

19:355-356

Pritchard WS, Robinson JH (in press) Effects of nicotine on
cognitive performance in humans. To appear in J Snel (ed),
Caffeine, Nicotine, and Social Drinking Effects on Task
Performance Information Processing, and Subjective Responses,
Taylor and Francis, New York

Pritchard WS, Robinson JH, Guy TD (1992) Enhancement of
continuous performance task reaction time by smoking in
non-deprived smokers.  Psychopharmacology 108:437-442

Rusted JM, Warburton DM (1992) Facilitation of memory by post
trials administration of nicotine: Evidence for an attentional
explanation.  Psychopharmacology 108:452-455

Sherwood N (1994) Cognitive and psychomotor effects of nicotine
and cigarette smoking. In: MW Ogdon, HR Burton, LW Renfro (eds),
Recent Advances in Tobacco Science 20:81-105

Sloan JW, Martin WR, Smith WT (1987) Multiple nicotinic
receptors: Nicotinic ligands with different specificities. In: WR
Martin, GR Van Loon, ET Iwamoto, L Davis (eds), Tobacco Smoking
and Nicotine: A Neurobiological Approach, Plenum Press, New York,
pp 81-100

Stelmack RM, Houlihan M, McGarry-Roberts P (1993) Personality,
reaction time, and event-related potentials. J Pers Social Psych
65:399-409

Wesnes K (1987) Nicotine increases mental efficiency: But how?
In: WR Martin, GR Van Loon, ET Iwamoto, L Davis (eds), Tobacco
Smoking and Nicotine: A Neurobiological Approach, Plenum Press,
New York, pp 81-100

Wesnes K, Warburton DM (1978) The effects of cigarette smoke and
nicotine upon human attention In RE Thorton (ed), Smoking
Behavior: Physiological and Psychological Influences, Churchill
Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp 131-147

West RJ, Jarvis MJ (1986) Effects of nicotine on finger tapping
rate in non-smokers. Pharm Bioch & Beh 25:727-731

Figure 1.

Grand average waveforms from Fz, Cz, and Pz in the Auditory task
across all conditions (Solid line: Pre-smoking baseline; Dotted
line: Post smoking low nicotine-yield cigarette; Wide dashed
lines: Post smoking of the first higher nicotine-yield cigarette;
Narrow dashed lines: Post smoking the second higher yield
nicotine cigarette).

Figure 2.

Grand average waveforms from Fz, Cz, and Pz in the Visual task
across all conditions (Solid line: Pre-smoking baseline; Dotted
line: Post smoking low nicotine-yield cigarette; Wide dashed
lines: Post smoking of the first higher nicotine-yield cigarette;
Narrow dashed lines: Post smoking the second higher yield
nicotine cigarette).

For more information see:

Michael Houlihan's CV

The Effects of Smoking on Stimulus Evaluation and Response
Selection

Effects of Cigarette Smoking on EEG Spectral-Band Power,
Dimensional Complexity, and Nonlinearity During

Reaction-Time Task Performance

Created by Michael E. Houlihan. Please direct any comments to
Michael E.  Houlihan at houlihan@isnet.is.wfu.edu

last updated: September 15, 1995 Date: Wed, 23 Oct 91 12:33:37
0000

-----------------------------------------------------------------


Michael Houlihan, Ph.D.

Curriculum Vitae for Michael Houlihan

Contents:

Affiliation

 Education
 Awards
 Research Experience
 Teaching Experience
 Professional Affiliations
 Publications
 Misc...
 References

Affiliation:

Department of Physiology and Pharmacology Bowman-Gray School of
Medicine Wake Forest University Winston-Salem, NC27157

Mailing address:

 R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co.
 Bowman Gray Technical Center
 Psychophysiology Lab 611-12 110
 Winston-Salem, NC 27102
 e-mail:Houlihan@isnet.is.wfu.edu
 phone: (910)-741-5531 (work)
 phone: (910)-744-9678 (home)
 fax: (910)-741-4682

Education:

 BSc (Honours) (1989)
 Major: Psychology
 Minor: Applied Statistics
 Mount St. Vincent University
 Thesis: Relationships Among Animal-Related Attitudes and
Behaviors

 Ph.D. (Psychology) (1994)
 University of Ottawa
 Thesis: P300 and Cognitive Ability: Processing Resources,
Equivocation and Speed of Processing During Simple Cognitive
Tasks

Awards:

1989-1994

 Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Scholarship
1989-1994
 University of Ottawa Research Scholarship

1989

 Governor General's Silver Medal (highest standing in the
university)
 Exemplary Performance in Psychology
 Supported research for Nova Scotia Royal Commission on AIDS

1987-1989

 Deans list

1987-89

 Merit Scholarships Mount St. Vincent University
 Summer Research Employment Awards

Research Experience:

1994-present

Leon J Goldberg postdoctoral research fellow in toxicology Bowman
Gray School of Medicine Wake Forest University

Basic research on the effects of nicotine on human performance
with an emphasis on the use of EEG and ERP recordings as an
adjunct to traditional behavioral measures of human cognitive
performance.

1989-1994

Research Assistant for R. Stelmack and K. Campbell University of
Ottawa

This research was directed toward understanding the biological
underpinnings of trait-derived descriptors of personality and
intelligence using psychophysiological tools but also involved
investigations of memory and attentional processes.

1988-1989

Research Assistant for R. Kafer and F. Harrington Mount St.
Vincent University

This research program involved the statistical analysis of a
large stratified random sample of attitudinal questionnaires on
attitudes toward animals and attitudes toward HIV patients.

Teaching Experience:

I served as a course assistant at both the University of Ottawa
and Mount St. Vincent University. These positions varied greatly
in demands which included formal lecturing, conducting regular
labs, giving group and individual tutorials, statistical advising
on research projects and other course related duties. The courses
included:

 Introductory Statistics
 Calculus
 Introductory Psychology
 Research Methods
 Personality
 Intelligence

 Professional Affiliations:
 American Psychological Association
 American Psychological Society
 Canadian Psychological Association
 Canadian Society for Brain Behaviour and Cognitive Science
 International Society for the Study of Individual Differences
 Society for Psychophysiological Research

Publications:

1. Houlihan, M., Pritchard, W. & Robinson, J. (in press). Faster
P300 latency in visual but not auditory oddball tasks after
smoking.  Psychopharmacology.

2. Stelmack, R. & Houlihan, M. (1995). Event-related potentials,
personality and intelligence: Concepts, issues and evidence. In
D.H.  Saklofske & M. Zaidner (Eds.) International Handbook of
Personality and Intelligence (pp. 349-366). New York: Plenum.

3. Houlihan, M., Campbell, K. & Stelmack, R. (1994). Reaction
time and movement time as measures of stimulus

evaluation and response processes. Intelligence, 18, 289-307.

4. Stelmack, R., Houlihan, M. & McGarrey-Roberts, P. (1993).
Personality, reaction time, and event-related potentials. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 399-409.

5. Van Houten, R., Rolider, A., & Houlihan, M. (1991). Treatments
of self-injury based on teaching compliance and/or physical
restraint. In Leuselli, J.K., Matson, J.L. & Singh, N.N (Eds.),
Analysis, Assessment and Treatment of Self-Injury (pp. 181-199).
New York: Springer Verlag and Co.

6. Houlihan, M. & Van Houten, R. (1989). Behavioral treatment of
hyperactivity: A review and overview. Education and Treatment of
Children, 12, 265-275.

7. Kafer, R., Jollata, C., Landry, R. & Houlihan, M. (1988). The
Influence of Victim and Respondent Characteristics on Attitudes
Toward AIDS. A report to the Nova Scotia Task Force On AIDS.

Doctoral Thesis:

8. Houlihan, M. (1994). P300 and Cognitive Ability: Processing
Demands, Equivocation, and Speed of Processing During Simple
Cognitive Tasks.  Doctoral dissertation at the University of
Ottawa.

Manuscripts Submitted for Publication:

9. Stelmack, R., Houlihan, M. & Doucet, C. Event-related
potentials and the detection of deception: A two-stimulus
paradigm.

10. Houlihan, M., Stelmack, R. & Campbell, K. P300 and cognitive
ability: Assessing the roles of processing speed, perceptual
processing demands and task difficulty.

11. Houlihan, M., Pritchard, W., Krieble, K. & Duke, D. Effects
of cigarette smoking on EEG spectral-band power, dimensional
complexity, and nonlinearity during reaction-time task
performance.

Presentations:

12. Houlihan, M. (1995). Smoking and EEG. Presentation at the
First Duke Nicotine Research Conference.

13. Houlihan, M., Pritchard, W. & Robinson, J. (1995). Can
Smoking Speed Cognitive Processing? Presentation at the meeting
of the Canadian Society for Brain Behaviour and Cognitive
Science.

14. Houlihan, M. & Stelmack, R. (1994). Cognitive Ability and
Individual Differences in P300 During Simple Cognitive Tasks.
Presentation at the meeting of the Society for
Psychophysiological Research.

15. Stelmack, R., Houlihan, M. & Doucet, C. (1994). Event-related
Potentials and the Detection of Deception: A Two-Stimulus
Paradigm.  Presentation at the meeting of the Society for
Psychophysiological Research.

16. Houlihan, M. & Stelmack, R. (1993). Event-related Potentials
During Simple Cognitive Tasks and Intellectual

Performance. Presentation at the meeting of the International
Society for the Study of Individual Differences.

17. Houlihan, M. & Stelmack, R. (1990). Recognition Memory for
High and Low Frequency Words: An Event-related

Potential Analysis. Presentation at the meeting of the Society
for Psychophysiological Research.

Manuscripts in Preparation:

18. Houlihan, M., Pritchard, W. & Robinson, J. The time course
effects of smoking on stimulus evaluation and response selection.

Research in Progress:

19. Houlihan, M., Pritchard, W., Yang, J., Chang, K., Robinson,
J. & deBethizy, D. Pharmaco-kinetic, pharmaco-dynamic modeling of
human EEG and heart rate following multiple cigarettes.

Misc...

Can create computer programs in C programming language.

Personal computer usage (DOS; Windows; OS2; Norton Utilities;
Corel Draw; Sigma Plot; Quarterdeck Expanded Memory Manager;
Spreadsheets: Excel, Quattro-Pro; Word Processors: WordPerfect,
Microsoft Word; Communications: Procomm Plus, Netmanage)

Statistical analysis programming (Systat; SAS; SPSS; BMDP) and
consulting

Familiar with mainframe UNIX, Sun and IBM environments

Experience with EEG data acquisition systems from Neuroscan and
Instep

References:

 Walter S. Pritchard
 Master Scientist
 R.J. Reynolds Co.
 Bowman Gray Technical Center
 Winston-Salem, N.C. 27102
 phone: (910)-741-4388

 Robert M. Stelmack
 School of Psychology
 University of Ottawa
 Ottawa, Ont. K1N 6N5
 Canada
 phone: (613)-562-5800 ext 4295

 Deborah Kay
 Senior Staff Scientist
 R.J. Reynolds Co.
 Bowman Gray Technical Center
 Winston-Salem, N.C. 27102
 phone: (910)-741-5423

Created by Michael Houlihan. Comments or suggestions would be
greatly appreciated at houlihan@isnet.is.wfu.edu.

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